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It is noteworthy that the currently found learning deficits in individuals with PP would not have been predicted by the IES Tiffany 1837 lock ring hypothesis of PP. The IES interpretation proposes that an underlying amygdala deficit (Kiehl et al. 2001; Blair, 2003; Pridmore et al. 2005) leads to impairments in stimulus-reinforcement associations but not in stimulus-response associations in individuals with PP. However, although the amygdala plays a central role in the first process, other brain structures are involved in the second. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and ERP studies using similar paradigms to the current one have demonstrated an important role for the pMFC Tiffany 1837 ring and the basal ganglia (Holroyd & Coles, 2002; Ullsperger & von Cramon, 2006) in learning from errors. Currently, the IES interpretation of PP does not include these processes and brain areas and hence does not allow for any specific predictions to be made. Therefore, we argue that, for a better understanding of the learning deficits in PP, neurocognitive models should also focus on the areas involved in the processing of internal and external error messages and the subsequent adaptation of behaviour.

To summarize, our results indicate that learning from negative feedback is compromised in PP. These Tiffany Somerset ring are supported by both behavioural and electrophysiological data. Deviancies in error processing may play a crucial role in the learning deficiencies associated with PP. The IES interpretation of PP predicts deficits in certain forms of learning, but does not relate these deficits to the processing of errors. Furthermore, although the model includes aspects of stimulus-response learning and stimulus-reinforcement learning, aspects of internal and external error processing relevant to trial-and-error learning are not included. This differentiation between learning processes also fits with a more recent model of decision making proposed by Rushworth et al. (2007), in which the orbitofrontal cortex, the ACC and the amygdala are part of a neural network involved in learning, action monitoring and social behaviour. Our data suggest that extending the IES interpretation to include error monitoring and Tiffany Knots ring involved in error monitoring, in addition to more diverse forms of learning, may lead to a broader understanding of the relationship between learning and PP.

The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) is a self-report instrument frequently used in clinical and research settings to assess depression severity. Although investigators have examined the factor structure of the BDI-II, a clear consensus on the best fitting model has not yet emerged, resulting in different recommendations Paloma's Tenderness Heart ring how to best score and interpret BDI-II results. In the current investigation, confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate previously identified models of the latent symptom structure of depression as assessed by the BDI-II. In contrast to previous investigations, we utilized a reliably diagnosed, homogenous clinical sample, composed only of patients with major depressive disorder (N = 425) -- the population for whom this measure of depression severity was originally designed. Two 3-factor models provided a good fit to the data and were further evaluated by means of factor associations with an external, interviewer-rated measure of depression severity. The results contribute to a growing body of evidence for the Ward (2006) model, including a General (G) depression factor, a Somatic (S) factor, and a Cognitive (C) factor. The results also support the use of the BDI-II total scale score. Research settings may wish to model minor factors to remove variance extraneous to depression where possible.