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Contrary to the present results, Budhani et al. (2006) found no acquisition problems in Tiffany Cushion ring individuals during the initial learning phase of a probabilistic response-reversal task. However, some important differences between the response-reversal task by Budhani et al. (2006) and the present task exist that may explain the different outcomes. First, the current task involved more complex learning material because we included three different reinforcement contingencies whereas Budhani et al. (2006) included only two. Second, the total number of stimulus-response associations to be learned in our study was 24. In the response-reversal task of Budhani et al. (2006), only six stimuli had to be associated with a response. Third, their task had no RT restriction whereas the present study used a deadline of 1000 ms. It seems plausible that these differences in complexity largely account for the divergent findings of the two studies. Moreover, the differences demonstrate that possible Elsa Peretti Sevillana ring in PP may only become evident in more complex situations and might be missed in less demanding tasks.

According to the RL theory (Holroyd & Coles, 2002), the fERN elicited by negative feedback is used to update and learn the earliest predictor of punishment. The error signal is carried to the pMFC, where it is used as a reinforcement-learning signal, guiding the adaptation of behaviour. Although individuals with PP show intact processing of external negative feedback at an electrophysiological level, they do not seem to use the error signal to optimally form an internal template of the rules Elsa Peretti Open Heart ring at hand. For an rERN to occur, detection of a mismatch between expected and real outcome has to take place (Holroyd & Coles, 2002). Prerequisite for this is an internal template of the rules to which the current behaviour can be compared. As no internal template is formed, a comparison between real and expected outcome cannot be made and hence learning, reflected in adaptive behaviour, is compromised. The reduced rERN amplitude thus reflects higher uncertainty due to diminished learning at an electrophysiological level (Pailing & Segalowitz, 2004). It has been demonstrated that the performance of individuals with PP in certain learning paradigms is modulated by reward but not by punishment Paloma Picasso Loving Heart ring. Additionally, it has been reported that low socialized individuals (a trait closely related to PP) show diminished rERNs under conditions of punishment but not reward (Dikman & Allen, 2000). With regard to the current task, individuals with PP might have learned based on reward cues, but not on punishment cues, which leads to diminished learning performance as only some of the trials (the rewarded but not the punished) are used to adapt behaviour.

An earlier investigation of the rERN in individuals diagnosed with PP outside a learning context Elsa Peretti Open Heart ring reported no indications for diminished amplitudes. Although Brazil et al. (2009) replicated this finding at an electrophysiological level, their behavioural data demonstrated problems in error signalling in individuals with PP. This suggests that rERN amplitudes are only decreased in PP when related to explicit behavioural adaptations or learning processes but not in the context of simple error detection in a neutral task.