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To master the present task, subjects have to learn the rules and apply them to Return to Tiffany Oval tag ring pictures in subsequent blocks. Therefore, accuracy is expected to be low in the initial learning phase (the first block) but to increase rapidly during the generalization process (later blocks). Although this pattern was found in both groups, individuals with PP showed diminished accuracy during the first block, suggesting a deficit in initial rule learning. Similar accuracy levels in the last block suggest that psychopathic individuals do reach the same performance level as healthy controls but need more time to do so.

Of note, differences in accuracy were only found in the easiest learning Tiffany 1837 ring and not for the more difficult 80% condition. One explanation for this finding is based on the so-called low-fear hypothesis of PP (Lykken, 1957), which assumes that psychopathic individuals are insensitive to punishment because of a low level of fear. Furthermore, some studies suggest that punishment-based learning is more impaired in PP than reward-based learning (Blair et al. 2004). If we assume that subjects with PP are impaired in learning based on Paloma Picasso Double Loving Heart ring feedback, subjects with PP will use substantially less trials to learn from than control subjects in the 100% condition. This then leads to a greater degree of uncertainty, which in turn leads to less accurate responding. In the 80% condition, however, accuracy does not depend solely on the amount of feedback information used. In this condition accuracy increases if the subject reacts as if this was a 100% condition, ignoring the 20% invalid unpredictable trials. Performance thus depends on how many valid trials are processed as useful information and how much of the invalid information is ignored. Therefore, it does not depend on Atlas ring total amount of feedback information used but on the proportion of valid versus invalid feedback that is used to learn the rule. This is not affected in individuals with PP, which explains why they show the same levels of accuracy in this condition.

Impaired learning under conditions of reward and punishment in psychopathic individuals Tiffany 1837 Ring been shown before. For example, psychopathic individuals showed impairments in passive avoidance learning (Newman & Kosson, 1986; Blair et al. 2004) and on a differential reward/punishment task (Blair et al. 2006).