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These findings are mainly in line with the integrated emotion system (IES) Return to Tiffany bead bracelet of PP (Blair, 2005; Blair et al. 2005), which assumes orbitofrontal and amygdala abnormalities in PP. The model predicts individuals with PP to show deficits in both stimulus-reinforcement learning involving the amygdala and reversal learning served by orbitofrontal areas and the basal ganglia (Cools et al. 2002; Clarke et al. 2008). Importantly, the model would not predict deficits in stimulus-response learning, a process that relies on the posterior medial frontal cortex (pMFC), including the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) and the anterior cingulate (Carter et al. 1998).

In our view, the above suggests that psychopathic individuals have difficulties in using negative feedback or error information to adapt their behaviour. Holroyd & Coles (2002) proposed the reinforcement learning (RL) theory of performance monitoring, which assumes that whenever outcomes are worse than Return to Tiffany heart lock charm and bracelet, an error signal is conveyed from the basal ganglia to the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Upon arrival of this error signal in the ACC, the error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential (ERP) component measurable at the scalp, is generated (Dehaene et al. 1994; Carter et al. 1998; Holroyd et al. 1998; Holroyd & Coles, 2002). The ERN occurs not only when participants make errors but also when they receive feedback Return to Tiffany Bead Bracelet that they gave an incorrect response (for an overview on ERN and performance monitoring, see Ullsperger & Falkenstein, 2004).

The onset of the ERN coincides with response initiation (rERN; Gehring & Fencsik, 2001), or occurs 200 ms after the delivery of error feedback (fERN; Milter et al . 1997). The former reflects internal error signals, the latter external error signals. Studies have demonstrated that the ERN is generated at the Elsa Peretti Eternal Circle Bracelet moment in time when the error can be detected (Holroyd & Coles, 2002; Nieuwenhuis et al. 2002). Thus, fERNs are elicited when the negative feedback itself was not, or was only partly, predicted by earlier events. This is, for example, the case when subjects are still learning the correct stimulus-response mapping by trial and error. However, as the system gradually learns the stimulus-response mapping, subjects will eventually be able to detect errors at the moment of response onset. At an electrophysiological level, this is reflected in the fERN 'propagating back in time' and 'becoming' an rERN. Consequently, while learning takes place, rERN Elsa Peretti Round Bracelet increase (Holroyd & Coles, 2002).